Credit goes to wehrkatzer for writing this

12% of total genetic variation within humanity is between races: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049837 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.9.4516 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.3378/027.081.0621 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1086/302825 Only 12%? Thats not a lot right?! First of all, consider what 12% actually means. 12% means the average PER snp. 0% on one loci, in a 2 race category scheme, would mean 50/50 chance of being correct in predicting sombody's race. 12% would mean 62% chance of being correct. Only 62%? That's only small if you're ignorant of binomial probability. Use more than one loci, and the likelihood of success goes up. Plugging into a binomial probability calculator, with 2 loci, the chance of being more related to your own race is 38.44%, the chance of being equally related to both is 47.12%, and the chance of being less related to your own race is 14.44%. Using 4 loci, the probability of being more related to your own race is 51% instead of 38%. Using 10 loci, 68%, 100 loci = over 99.9%. This is exactly what the cluster analyses show. Cluster analyses take a bunch of people and their genetic data, and split people into groups such that within group differences are minimized and between group differences are maximized. Geography of origin, and the racial categories, correspond to best fit genetic cluster 99+% of the time: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1086/368061 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-013-0242-0 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-8-68 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1002/humu.21366 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1086/427888 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.106.067355 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2013.00098 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311

Is 12% especially low for between group differences? The average difference between subspecies of various animals I've been able to find is even lower: Jaguars, 6.5%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01144.x Canadian Lynx, 3.3%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1038/415520a Asian dogs, 15.35%: https://sci-hub.tw/https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/92.5.398 African Buffalo, 5.9%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01101.x North American Coyote, 10.7%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040137 North American Wolverines, 7.6%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1644/1545-1542(2000)081%3C0186:GVOWGG%3E2.0.CO;2 Gray Wolves, 16.7%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040137 Humpback Whales, 12%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3222 Plains Zebras, 11%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03781.x Kob Antelope, 11%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03382.x South West European Cow, 6.8%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0388.2003.00384.x Red Winged Black Bird, 0.9%: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIGI.0000012142.96374.b6

Heterozygosity By Species: Humans - .776, .70-.76, .698. https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025810 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.7.3100 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1038/368455a0 Chimpanzees - .63, .765 https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025810?subid1=20210105-0639-4770-bbd8-fc5887c2bd86 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00852.x South African Buffalo - .729 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.1998.tb00015.x Leopards - .58 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01350.x Jaguars -.739 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01144.x Pumas - .52 https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/91.3.186?subid1=20210105-0642-22c0-a9eb-aa28e7cfc95d Canadian Lynx - .66 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1038/415520a North American Brown Bears - .5275 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.96457.x Scandinavian Brown Bears - .678 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01184.x Coyotes - .629 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020376.x Gray Wolves - .574 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020376.x Domestic Dogs - .5085 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020376.x African Wild Dogs - .643 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01302.x North American Wolverines - .55 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01222.x Scandinavian Wolverines - .325 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01184.x Elk - .395 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01033.x Bighorn Sheep - .6235 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8524043/ Bonobos - .535 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00852.x Polar Bears - .68 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00733.x Australian Dingoes - .445 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/90.1.108

Table: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1MgFL36_8XlvU8lUwDbb0JJhsr21MZ-UAnwh4OqDB2j8/edit?usp=sharing

Time of divergence for european moose-american moose: 165,000 years ago https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.92.10.4259 polar bears - brown bears: 152,000 years ago, but the adaptation only took 10,000-30,000 years. Look at a map of north america, there are rocky and appalachian mountains, but isn't even anything to separate north from south, yet climate is apparently all thats needed. https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914266107 birds (3 pairs of subspecies) 95,000 years ago, 70,000 years ago, & 65,000 years ago. https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1525/cond.2011.110042 8 subspecies of tigers: 72,000 years ago: https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442 Eastern and western wood ducks: 34,000 https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02618.x 2 lizard subspecies: 12,000 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4b09/5907c4eef7c941d1345a14d2516109d8f7f1.pdf